5.2 Creating Classes
Classes and Objects in The Racket Guide introduces classes and objects.
A built-in class that has no methods fields, implements only its own
interface
(class->interface object%), and is transparent
(i.e,. its inspector is
#f, so all immediate instances are
equal?). All other classes are derived from
object%.
| (class* superclass-expr (interface-expr ...) | | class-clause | | ...) |
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Produces a class value.
The superclass-expr expression is evaluated when the
class* expression is evaluated. The result must be a class
value (possibly object%), otherwise the
exn:fail:object exception is raised. The result of the
superclass-expr expression is the new class’s superclass.
The interface-expr expressions are also evaluated when the
class* expression is evaluated, after
superclass-expr is evaluated. The result of each
interface-expr must be an interface value, otherwise the
exn:fail:object exception is raised. The interfaces returned by the
interface-exprs are all implemented by the class. For each
identifier in each interface, the class (or one of its ancestors) must
declare a public method with the same name, otherwise the
exn:fail:object exception is raised. The class’s superclass must satisfy the
implementation requirement of each interface, otherwise the
exn:fail:object exception is raised.
An inspect class-clause selects an inspector (see
Structure Inspectors) for the class extension. The
inspector-expr must evaluate to an inspector or #f
when the class* form is evaluated. Just as for structure
types, an inspector controls access to the class’s fields, including
private fields, and also affects comparisons using equal?. If
no inspect clause is provided, access to the class is
controlled by the parent of the current inspector (see
Structure Inspectors). A syntax error is reported if more than one
inspect clause is specified.
The other class-clauses define initialization arguments,
public and private fields, and public and private methods. For each
id or maybe-renamed in a public,
override, augment, pubment,
overment, augride, public-final,
override-final, augment-final, or private
clause, there must be one method-definition. All other
definition class-clauses create private fields. All remaining
exprs are initialization expressions to be evaluated when the
class is instantiated (see Creating Objects).
The result of a class* expression is a new class, derived
from the specified superclass and implementing the specified
interfaces. Instances of the class are created with the
instantiate form or make-object procedure, as
described in Creating Objects.
Each class-clause is (partially) macro-expanded to reveal its
shapes. If a class-clause is a begin expression, its
sub-expressions are lifted out of the begin and treated as
class-clauses, in the same way that begin is
flattened for top-level and embedded definitions.
Within a class* form for instances of the new class,
this is bound to the object itself;
this% is bound to the class of the object;
super-instantiate, super-make-object, and
super-new are bound to forms to initialize fields in the
superclass (see Creating Objects); super is
available for calling superclass methods (see
Method Definitions); and inner is available for
calling subclass augmentations of methods (see
Method Definitions).
| (class superclass-expr class-clause ...) |
Like
class*, but omits the
interface-exprs, for the case that none are needed.
Within a
class* form,
this refers
to the current object (i.e., the object being initialized or whose
method was called). Use outside the body of a
class* form is
a syntax error.
Examples: |
| | | > (send (new table) describe-self) | Hello #(struct:object:table ...) |
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Within a
class* form,
this% refers to the class
of the current object (i.e., the object being initialized or whose
method was called). Use outside the body of a
class* form is
a syntax error.
Examples: |
| | | > (let* ([acct (new savings% [balance 500])] | | [acct (send acct add 500)] | | [acct (send acct add-interest)]) | | (printf "Current balance: ~a\n" (get-field balance acct))) |
| Current balance: 1040.0 |
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See
class*; use outside the body of a
class* form is a syntax error.
| (class/derived original-datum | | (name-id super-expr (interface-expr ...) deserialize-id-expr) | | class-clause | | ...) |
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The original-datum is the original expression to use for
reporting errors.
The name-id is used to name the resulting class; if it
is #f, the class name is inferred.
The super-expr, interface-exprs, and
class-clauses are as for class*.
If the deserialize-id-expr is not literally #f, then
a serializable class is generated, and the result is two values
instead of one: the class and a deserialize-info structure produced by
make-deserialize-info. The deserialize-id-expr
should produce a value suitable as the second argument to
make-serialize-info, and it should refer to an export whose
value is the deserialize-info structure.
Future optional forms may be added to the sequence that currently ends
with deserialize-id-expr.
5.2.1 Initialization Variables
A class’s initialization variables, declared with init,
init-field, and init-rest, are instantiated
for each object of a class. Initialization variables can be used in
the initial value expressions of fields, default value expressions
for initialization arguments, and in initialization expressions. Only
initialization variables declared with init-field can be
accessed from methods; accessing any other initialization variable
from a method is a syntax error.
The values bound to initialization variables are
the arguments provided with instantiate or passed to
make-object, if the object is created as a direct instance
of the class; or,
the arguments passed to the superclass initialization form or
procedure, if the object is created as an instance of a derived
class.
If an initialization argument is not provided for an initialization
variable that has an associated default-value-expr, then the
default-value-expr expression is evaluated to obtain a value
for the variable. A default-value-expr is only evaluated when
an argument is not provided for its variable. The environment of
default-value-expr includes all of the initialization
variables, all of the fields, and all of the methods of the class. If
multiple default-value-exprs are evaluated, they are
evaluated from left to right. Object creation and field initialization
are described in detail in Creating Objects.
If an initialization variable has no default-value-expr, then
the object creation or superclass initialization call must supply an
argument for the variable, otherwise the exn:fail:object exception is raised.
Initialization arguments can be provided by name or by position. The
external name of an initialization variable can be used with
instantiate or with the superclass initialization form. Those
forms also accept by-position arguments. The make-object
procedure and the superclass initialization procedure accept only
by-position arguments.
Arguments provided by position are converted into by-name arguments
using the order of init and init-field clauses and
the order of variables within each clause. When an instantiate
form provides both by-position and by-name arguments, the converted
arguments are placed before by-name arguments. (The order can be
significant; see also Creating Objects.)
Unless a class contains an init-rest clause, when the number
of by-position arguments exceeds the number of declared initialization
variables, the order of variables in the superclass (and so on, up the
superclass chain) determines the by-name conversion.
If a class expression contains an init-rest clause, there
must be only one, and it must be last. If it declares a variable, then
the variable receives extra by-position initialization arguments as a
list (similar to a dotted “rest argument” in a procedure). An
init-rest variable can receive by-position initialization
arguments that are left over from a by-name conversion for a derived
class. When a derived class’s superclass initialization provides even
more by-position arguments, they are prefixed onto the by-position
arguments accumulated so far.
If too few or too many by-position initialization arguments are
provided to an object creation or superclass initialization, then the
exn:fail:object exception is raised. Similarly, if extra by-position arguments
are provided to a class with an init-rest clause, the
exn:fail:object exception is raised.
Unused (by-name) arguments are to be propagated to the superclass, as
described in Creating Objects. Multiple initialization
arguments can use the same name if the class derivation contains
multiple declarations (in different classes) of initialization
variables with the name. See Creating Objects for further
details.
See also Internal and External Names for information about internal and
external names.
5.2.2 Fields
Each field, init-field, and non-method
define-values clause in a class declares one or more new
fields for the class. Fields declared with field or
init-field are public. Public fields can be accessed and
mutated by subclasses using inherit-field. Public fields are
also accessible outside the class via class-field-accessor
and mutable via class-field-mutator (see
Field and Method Access). Fields declared with define-values
are accessible only within the class.
A field declared with init-field is both a public field and
an initialization variable. See Initialization Variables for
information about initialization variables.
An inherit-field declaration makes a public field defined by
a superclass directly accessible in the class expression. If the
indicated field is not defined in the superclass, the
exn:fail:object exception is raised when the class expression is evaluated.
Every field in a superclass is present in a derived class, even if it
is not declared with inherit-field in the derived class. The
inherit-field clause does not control inheritance, but merely
controls lexical scope within a class expression.
When an object is first created, all of its fields have the
#<undefined> value (see Void and Undefined). The fields of a
class are initialized at the same time that the class’s initialization
expressions are evaluated; see Creating Objects for more
information.
See also Internal and External Names for information about internal and
external names.
5.2.3 Methods
5.2.3.1 Method Definitions
Each public, override, augment,
pubment, overment, augride,
public-final, override-final,
augment-final, and private clause in a class
declares one or more method names. Each method name must have a
corresponding method-definition. The order of
public, etc., clauses and their corresponding definitions
(among themselves, and with respect to other clauses in the class)
does not matter.
As shown in the grammar for class*, a method definition is
syntactically restricted to certain procedure forms, as defined by the
grammar for method-procedure; in the last two forms of
method-procedure, the body id must be one of the
ids bound by let-values or letrec-values. A
method-procedure expression is not evaluated
directly. Instead, for each method, a class-specific method procedure
is created; it takes an initial object argument, in addition to the
arguments the procedure would accept if the method-procedure
expression were evaluated directly. The body of the procedure is
transformed to access methods and fields through the object argument.
A method declared with public, pubment, or
public-final introduces a new method into a class. The method
must not be present already in the superclass, otherwise the
exn:fail:object exception is raised when the class expression is evaluated. A
method declared with public can be overridden in a subclass
that uses override, overment, or
override-final. A method declared with pubment can
be augmented in a subclass that uses augment,
augride, or augment-final. A method declared with
public-final cannot be overridden or augmented in a subclass.
A method declared with override, overment, or
override-final overrides a definition already present in the
superclass. If the method is not already present, the
exn:fail:object exception is raised when the class expression is evaluated. A
method declared with override can be overridden again in a
subclass that uses override, overment, or
override-final. A method declared with overment can
be augmented in a subclass that uses augment,
augride, or augment-final. A method declared with
override-final cannot be overridden further or augmented in a
subclass.
A method declared with augment, augride, or
augment-final augments a definition already present in the
superclass. If the method is not already present, the
exn:fail:object exception is raised when the class expression is evaluated. A
method declared with augment can be augmented further in a
subclass that uses augment, augride, or
augment-final. A method declared with augride can be
overridden in a subclass that uses override,
overment, or override-final. (Such an override
merely replaces the augmentation, not the method that is augmented.)
A method declared with augment-final cannot be overridden or
augmented further in a subclass.
A method declared with private is not accessible outside the
class expression, cannot be overridden, and never overrides a method
in the superclass.
When a method is declared with override, overment,
or override-final, then the superclass implementation of the
method can be called using super form.
When a method is declared with pubment, augment, or
overment, then a subclass augmenting method can be called
using the inner form. The only difference between
public-final and pubment without a corresponding
inner is that public-final prevents the declaration
of augmenting methods that would be ignored.
| (super id arg ...) |
| (super id arg ... . arg-list-expr) |
Always accesses the superclass method, independent of whether the
method is overridden again in subclasses. Using the
super
form outside of
class* is a syntax error. Each
arg
is as for
#%app: either
arg-expr or
keyword arg-expr.
The second form is analogous to using apply with a procedure;
the arg-list-expr must not be a parenthesized expression.
| (inner default-expr id arg ...) |
| (inner default-expr id arg ... . arg-list-expr) |
If the object’s class does not supply an augmenting method, then
default-expr is evaluated, and the
arg expressions
are not evaluated. Otherwise, the augmenting method is called with the
arg results as arguments, and
default-expr is not
evaluated. If no
inner call is evaluated for a particular
method, then augmenting methods supplied by subclasses are never
used. Using the
inner form outside of
class* is an
syntax error.
The second form is analogous to using apply with a procedure;
the arg-list-expr must not be a parenthesized expression.
5.2.3.2 Inherited and Superclass Methods
Each inherit, inherit/super, inherit/inner,
rename-super, and rename-inner clause declares one
or more methods that are defined in the class, but must be present in
the superclass. The rename-super and rename-inner
declarations are rarely used, since inherit/super and
inherit/inner provide the same access. Also, superclass and
augmenting methods are typically accessed through super and
inner in a class that also declares the methods, instead of
through inherit/super, inherit/inner,
rename-super, or rename-inner.
Method names declared with inherit, inherit/super,
or inherit/inner access overriding declarations, if any, at
run time. Method names declared with inherit/super can also
be used with the super form to access the superclass
implementation, and method names declared with inherit/inner
can also be used with the inner form to access an augmenting
method, if any.
Method names declared with rename-super always access the
superclass’s implementation at run-time. Methods declared with
rename-inner access a subclass’s augmenting method, if any,
and must be called with the form
(id (lambda () default-expr) arg ...)
so that a default-expr is available to evaluate when no
augmenting method is available. In such a form, lambda is a
literal identifier to separate the default-expr from the
arg. When an augmenting method is available, it receives the
results of the arg expressions as arguments.
Methods that are present in the superclass but not declared with
inherit, inherit/super, or inherit/inner or
rename-super are not directly accessible in the class
(though they can be called with send). Every public method
in a superclass is present in a derived class, even if it is not
declared with inherit in the derived class; the
inherit clause does not control inheritance, but merely
controls lexical scope within a class expression.
If a method declared with inherit, inherit/super,
inherit/inner, rename-super, or
rename-inner is not present in the superclass, the
exn:fail:object exception is raised when the class expression is evaluated.
5.2.3.3 Internal and External Names
Each method declared with public, override,
augment, pubment, overment,
augride, public-final, override-final,
augment-final, inherit, inherit/super,
inherit/inner, rename-super, and
rename-inner can have separate internal and external names
when (internal-id external-id) is used for declaring the
method. The internal name is used to access the method directly within
the class expression (including within super or
inner forms), while the external name is used with
send and generic (see Field and Method Access). If
a single id is provided for a method declaration, the
identifier is used for both the internal and external names.
Method inheritance, overriding, and augmentation are based on external
names only. Separate internal and external names are required for
rename-super and rename-inner (for historical
reasons, mainly).
Each init, init-field, field, or
inherit-field variable similarly has an internal and an
external name. The internal name is used within the class to access
the variable, while the external name is used outside the class when
providing initialization arguments (e.g., to instantiate),
inheriting a field, or accessing a field externally (e.g., with
class-field-accessor). As for methods, when inheriting a
field with inherit-field, the external name is matched to an
external field name in the superclass, while the internal name is
bound in the class expression.
A single identifier can be used as an internal identifier and an
external identifier, and it is possible to use the same identifier as
internal and external identifiers for different bindings. Furthermore,
within a single class, a single name can be used as an external method
name, an external field name, and an external initialization argument
name. Overall, each internal identifier must be distinct from all
other internal identifiers, each external method name must be distinct
from all other method names, each external field name must be distinct
from all other field names, and each initialization argument name must
be distinct from all other initialization argument names.
By default, external names have no lexical scope, which means, for
example, that an external method name matches the same syntactic
symbol in all uses of send. The
define-local-member-name and define-member-name forms
introduce scoped external names.
When a class expression is compiled, identifiers used in
place of external names must be symbolically distinct (when the
corresponding external names are required to be distinct), otherwise a
syntax error is reported. When no external name is bound by
define-member-name, then the actual external names are
guaranteed to be distinct when class expression is evaluated.
When any external name is bound by define-member-name, the
exn:fail:object exception is raised by class if the actual external
names are not distinct.
Unless it appears as the top-level definition, binds each
id
so that, within the scope of the definition, each use of each
id as an external name is resolved to a hidden name generated
by the
define-local-member-name declaration. Thus, methods,
fields, and initialization arguments declared with such external-name
ids are accessible only in the scope of the
define-local-member-name declaration. As a top-level
definition,
define-local-member-name binds
id to its
symbolic form.
The binding introduced by define-local-member-name is a
syntax binding that can be exported and imported with
modules. Each evaluation of a
define-local-member-name declaration generates a distinct
hidden name (except as a top-level definition). The
interface->method-names procedure does not expose hidden
names.
Examples: |
| | > r | 10 | | > (send o m) | send: no such method: m for class: c% |
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Maps a single external name to an external name that is determined by
an expression. The value of
key-expr must be the result of either a
member-name-key expression or a
generate-member-key call.
Produces a representation of the external name for
id in the
environment of the
member-name-key expression.
Produces #t if member-name keys a-key and
b-key represent the same external name, #f
otherwise.
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| > (send (new fc%) m) | send: no such method: m for class: eval:15:0 | | 10 |
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